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It would be as if they had suddenly been given a car. Very much like the lyrics of the famous She may be ancient Egypts most famous face, but the quest to find the eternal resting place of Queen Nefertiti has never been hotter. Norimitsu Odachi: Who Could Have Possibly Wielded This Enormous 15th Century Japanese Sword? was spoken on the Ukrainian steppes by the Corded Ware people: [36] Anthony[37] speculates that the Yamnaya ate a diet consisting of meat, milk, yogurt, cheese, and soups made from seeds and wild vegetables, and probably consumed mead. What if we could clean them out? They resisted the largest invasion of Europe (the Yamnaya invasion) and were able to preserve and become few handful of non-Indo-European cultures in Europe. In the northern part of the Continent the Western Hunter Gatherers (WHG) are mostly represented by I1. Because of this, it is not unreasonable to suggest that the Yamnaya men coming into the region were mostly warriors. [67][62][8] Haak et al. [4] Their material culture was very similar to the Afanasevo culture of South Siberia, and the populations of both cultures are genetically indistinguishable. But genetic evidence, Reich and others say, shows that many Corded Ware people were, to a large extent, their descendants. People of Europe were in trade contact with the people of the Middle East and the Eurasian steppes and they adopted the technology and lifeways of more technologically advanced outsiders. With 306 references, six greyscaled and coloured images, and miniature images within the table of 130 representative finds, including new finds in Germany and Western China. 'culture of pits'), also known as the Pit Grave culture or Ochre Grave culture, was a late Copper Age to early Bronze Age archaeological culture of the region between the Southern Bug, Dniester, and Ural rivers (the Pontic steppe), dating to 3300-2600 BCE. Yamnaya culture, also known as Yamna, drove out, almost all the population of locals in Spain about 5000 years ago. The Celtic . That might not have been the Yamnayas most significant contribution to Europes development. Yamnaya ancestry: mapping the Proto-Indo-European expansions Carlos Quiles Altaic, Anthropology, Archaeology, Culture, Demic diffusion, Indo-Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Linguistics, North-West Indo-European, Population Genomics, Proto-Indo-European, Turkic August 5, 2019 Almost invariably, men were buried lying on their right side and women lying on their left, both with their legs curled up and their faces pointed south. A new article by Leo S. Klejn tries to improve the Northern Mesolithic Proto-Indo-European homeland model of the Russian school of thought: The Steppe hypothesis of Indo-European origins remains to be proven, Acta Archaeologica, 88:1, 193-204. Now scientists are delivering new answers to the question of who Europeans really are and where they came from. The study also noted that ancient south Asian samples had significantly higher Steppe_MLBA than Steppe_EMBA (or Yamnaya). Their own DNA suggests they had dark skin and perhaps light eyes. The spread of Yamnaya genetic influence across Europe and central Asia roughly matches the spread of Indo-European languages. A Yamnaya skeleton from a grave in the Russian steppe, which was the homeland of men who migrated to Europe. The Yamnaya crossed enormous distances, likely because of a newly domesticated animal at the time, the horse. Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population. of steppe people into southeastern Europe was explained as a violent invasion. Yamnaya tombs, however, consist of more individual grave sites. Series Minor 43. A woman harvests wheat by hand near Konya, Turkey. Recent research by Haak et al. Figure 5. By about 6,000 years ago, there were farmers and herders all across Europe. Spanish conquistadors couldn't believe their eyes while exploring the rugged terrain of the Andes during their invasion of Peru. [45][46] A 2022 study by Lazaridis et al. [73][c], Studies also point to the strong presence of Yamnaya descent in the current nations of South Asia, especially in groups that are referred to as Indo-Aryans. featuring axes and horses. Ancient Origins 2013 - 2023Disclaimer- Terms of Publication - Privacy Policy & Cookies - Advertising Policy -Submissions - We Give Back - Contact us. Eco-friendly burial alternatives, explained. Heres the technology that helped scientists find itand what it may have been used for. When does spring start? It could be said that the first movement towards economic and cultural globalization was implemented by pastoralist nomads wandering the steppes of central Eurasia. As such, Grasgruber's data is valuable in itself but both the older and the new studies lack the kind of nuance we would . Keep in mind, that the original (Proto) Basques were different genetically . Before about 9,000 BP Europe was still in the Palaeolithic. Even today it makes some archaeologists uncomfortable when geneticists draw bold arrows across maps of Europe. In the first century CE, Roman historian Tacitus observed that in a Germanic tribe (descended from the Yamnaya), 'the wife refused to survive her husband, but killed herself in order to be burnt on the same funeral pyre as him'. [7] They are found to belong to a wider variety of mtDNA haplogroups, including U, T, and haplogroups associated with Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers and Early European Farmers. None of the Yamnaya samples were predicted to have either blue eyes or blonde hair. But then Johannes Krause and his team at Germanys Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History tested the samples from a handful of petrous bones. Yamnaya households were small, consisting of only two or three families. The Yamnaya (Pit-grave) culture was succeeded in its western range by the Catacomb culture (28002200BC); in the east, by the Poltavka culture (27002100BC) at the middle Volga. Ancient Chinese Earthquake Detector Invented 2,000 Years Ago Really Worked! All rights reserved. (2017), all Iron Age Scythian Steppe nomads can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian-related component, which most closely corresponds to the modern North Siberian Nganasan people of the lower Yenisey River, to varying degrees, but generally higher among Eastern Scythians. The Survive the Jive channel has some quite comprehensive videos about the genetic research about the origins of the Yamnaya-people and their spread into Europe. "It looks like males migrating in war, with horses and wagons," says lead author and population geneticist Mattias Jakobsson of Uppsala University in Sweden. New research just published in the journal Frontiers in Genetics reveals fascinating details about the evolution of Europeans, the humans living in Europe during the Neolithic period (10,000 BC to 4, An English archaeologist has analyzed big data to make a slate of new observations about changing burial traditions in medieval Europe. AAAS is a partner of HINARI, AGORA, OARE, CHORUS, CLOCKSS, CrossRef and COUNTER. They may have been "more focused on warfare, with faster dispersal because of technological inventions" says population geneticist Rasmus Nielsen of the University of California, Berkeley, who is not part of the study. Thegoal of Ancient Origins is to highlight recent archaeological discoveries, peer-reviewed academic research and evidence, as well as offering alternative viewpoints and explanations of science, archaeology, mythology, religion and history around the globe. The origins of modern Europeans are shrouded in mystery and wracked by controversy. Around 5,000 years ago, ox-drawn wagons rumbled out of the Eurasian grasslands and into the Danube Valley of eastern Europe. The group, today known as the Yamna or Pit Grave culture,. All rights reserved. The Yamnaya were pastoral nomads. Help News from Science publish trustworthy, high-impact stories about research and the people who shape it. Excavations at the 10,300-year-old site of Boncuklu in Turkey have revealed that people were living there during the transition to farming. It is likely, based on our analysis, that the population that contributed genetic material to South Asia was (roughly) ~60% Yamnaya, ~30% European farmer-like ancestry, and ~10% Central Steppe hunter-gatherer ancestry. Im sure theres a big database of grave finds, but youd have to verify the datingit tends to be dubious. One of the earliest material cultures associated with a domesticated horse species is the Botai culture . Look at the migrations of today? More recent genetic studies have found that the Yamnaya were a mixture of EHGs, CHGs, and to a lesser degree Anatolian farmers and Levantine farmers, but not EEFs from Europe due to lack of WHG DNA in the Yamnaya. This is why they had words for agricultural things but also spread out and took over Europe as well as parts of Asia. According to Jones et al. [1][6] Additionally, a minority are found to belong to haplogroup I2. It calls back old demons of blond, blue-eyed guys coming back somehow out of the hell where they were sent after World War II.. New metalworking technologies and weapon designs are used.[32]. [63], According to David W. Anthony, the genetic evidence suggests that the leading clans of the Yamnaya were of EHG (Eastern European hunter-gatherer) and WHG (Western European hunter-gatherer) paternal origin[64] and implies that the Indo-European languages were the result of "a dominant language spoken by EHGs that absorbed Caucasus-like elements in phonology, morphology, and lexicon. 2017. This makes sense since these recent findings would suggest that the Germanic people and the Celts were their descendants. The Yamnaya culture or the Yamna culture (Russian: , Ukrainian: lit. Who Destroyed the Great Library of Alexandria? It is hard, if not impossible, in many cases to determine the language associated with an archaeological culture. What is wind chill, and how does it affect your body? The last major contributors to western and central Europes genetic makeupthe last of the first Europeans, so to speakarrived from the Russian steppe as Stonehenge was being built, nearly 5,000 years ago. In 1997, I argued that c 3000 BC, PIE (or even proto-Germanic?) He is especially interested in classical Greek history and Read More. About 14,500 years ago, as Europe began to warm, humans followed the retreating glaciers north. Its name derives from its characteristic burial tradition: (romanization: yamnaya) is a Russian adjective that means 'related to pits (yama)', as these people used to bury their dead in tumuli (kurgans) containing simple pit chambers. As Europe was gripped by the Ice Age, the modern humans hung on in the ice-free south, adapting to the cold climate.

Yamnaya artifacts from their homeland in Russia and Ukraine include a four-foot-tall anthropomorphic stela from 3000 B.C. Back migration from Corded Ware also contributed to Sintashta and Andronovo. All Europeans today are a mix. It has been home to farmers, says University of Liverpool archaeologist Douglas Baird, since the first days of farming. They may have even brought the plague. Now in terms of their origins, the Yamna (also known as Pit Grave) culture hailed from what is now modern-day Russia and Ukraine. Then, farmers began migrating from Anatolia (a region including present-day Turkey) into Europe 9000 years ago, but they initially didn't intermingle much with the local hunter-gatherers because they brought their own families with them. [35], Metallurgists and other craftsmen are given a special status in Yamnaya society, and metal objects are sometimes found in large quantities in elite graves. [43][44], People of the Yamnaya culture are believed to have had mostly brown eye colour, light to intermediate skin, and brown hair colour, with some variation. In 3,000 BC, nomadic pastoralists from the steppes of Eurasia replaced and interbred with the Neolithic farmers who had settled Europe about 4,000 years earlier. To save time and preserve delicate remains, the graves were removed from the ground in wooden crates, soil and all, and stored in a warehouse for later analysis. People erected mounds on a massive scale, accenting the individuality of people, accenting the role of men, accenting weapons. The second group being the Neolithic or early European farmers (EEF). [Online] Available at: https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/02/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-populationJuras, A, et al. Jamnakulturen (ryska: , ukrainska: ; frn ryska/ukrainska , grop), r en europeisk kultur frn sen kopparlder och tidig bronslder.Den utbredning i omrdet mellan floderna Vstra Bug i dagens Ukraina och Dnestr i dagens Rumnien p den Pontisk-kaspiska stppen mellan 3 500 och 2 200 f.Kr. As the cost of sequencing DNA has plummeted, scientists at labs like this one in Jena, Germany, have been able to unravel patterns of past human migration. Europeans who were alive from before the Yamnaya migration inherited equal amounts of DNA from Anatolian farmers on their X chromosome and their autosomes, the team reports today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. In the 1960s Serbian archaeologists uncovered a Mesolithic fishing village nestled in steep cliffs on a bend of the Danube, near one of the rivers narrowest points. [26] Dmytro Telegin viewed Serednii Stih and Yamna as one cultural continuum and considered Serednii Stih to be the genetic foundation of the Yamna.[27]. [Online] Available at: https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends-asia/dyeus-pater-0011264Welsh, J. Modern Europeans were born in the Bronze Age after a large wave of immigration by a nomadic people known as Yamnaya who came from the Russian steppe. (2016) Supplementary Information, Table S9.1: "Kalash 50.2%, Tiwari Brahmins 44.1%, Gujarati (four samples) 46.1% to 27.5%, Pathan 44.6%, Burusho 42.5%, Sindhi 37.7%, Punjabi 32.6%, Balochi 32.4%, Brahui 30.2%, Lodhi 29.3%, Bengali 24.6%, Vishwabhramin 20.4%, Makrani 19.2%, Mala 18.4%, Kusunda 8.9%, Kharia 6.5%.". [7][3] This admixture is referred to in archaeogenetics as Western Steppe Herder (WSH) ancestry. [] The Yamnaya horizon is the visible archaeological expression of a social adjustment to high mobility the invention of the political infrastructure to manage larger herds from mobile homes based in the steppes. The team zeroed in on differences in the ratio of DNA inherited on their X chromosomes compared with the 22 chromosomes that do not determine sex, the so-called autosomes. The Indo-European language groups as of 500 BC along with selected isoglosses. The two DNA studiesone led by Wolfgang Haak of the Australian Centre for Ancient DNA and Iosif Lazaridis of Harvard Medical School, and the other led by Eske Willersev and Morten E. Allentoft of the Center for GeoGenitics, University of Copenhagen, Denmark (Further reading)looked at the genetic makeup of modern European peoples and in 23 of them found evidence of a large Yamnaya . The answer isnt obvious. After all, even in India, the Greeks were referred to by Japaths eldest son, Javan. It is likely that once they reached Europe, they settled down and began to practice farming more often. In what is now Germany, theres a 70 percent to possibly 100 percent replacement of the local population, Reich says. In one grave, neatly contained in a wooden crate on the concrete floor of the warehouse, a woman and child are buried together. These skeletons may have the answer, Scientists are making advancements in birth controlfor men, Blood cleaning? Wodarczaks mound near abalj is the westernmost Yamnaya grave found so far. We seek to retell the story of our beginnings. Weak verbs in Germanic frequently derived from nouns by '-i/j-' (cf PIE suffix '-ei/i-', denominative), '-ian/jan' in the infinitive. Led by scouts on horseback and accompanied by herds of sheep and cattle, they went west through what's now Moldova, Romania, and Bulgaria. By 2800 B.C, archaeological excavations show, the Yamnaya had begun moving west, probably looking for greener pastures. The people of the Yamnaya culture are also closely connected to Final Neolithic cultures, which later spread throughout Europe and Central Asia, especially the Corded Ware people and the Bell Beaker culture, as well as the peoples of the Sintashta, Andronovo, and Srubnaya cultures. Today about 2 percent of a typical Europeans genome consists of Neanderthal DNA. They concluded that Yamnaya autosomal characteristics are very close to the Corded Ware culture people, with an estimated 73% ancestral contribution from the Yamnaya DNA in the DNA of Corded Ware skeletons from Germany. When researchers first analyzed the DNA from some of these graves, they expected the Corded Ware folk would be closely related to Neolithic farmers. AtAncient Origins, we believe that one of the most important fields of knowledge we can pursue as human beings is our beginnings. This group of islands is one of the most remote in the world and its population is one of the most isolated. One example is the Hepatitis B virus (HBV). Why Russia's invasion of Ukraine still divides Africa. Bones and artifacts some 7,700 years old found at Aktopraklik, a Neolithic village in northwestern Turkey, offer clues to the early days of agriculture. [28], Characteristic for the culture are the burials in pit graves under kurgans (tumuli), often accompanied with animal offerings. For millennia, they made little impact. The Civilization of Old Europe from the Danube river down south east at both shores of the Aegean Before the arrival of the Yamnaya, European tombs were large and communal and appear to have belonged to more than one family. The first complete mapping of a Neanderthal genome took place about five years ago - supporting the human-Neanderthal hook-up and also showing that Neanderthal DNA in humans is a thing. The word for ocean or sea is not consistent across many Indo-European language subgroups and, in some cases, appears to have been borrowed from a foreign, possibly non-Indo-European language, as is the case with the Greek, thalassa. "When you get on a horse and ride it fast, it's a thrill - I'm sure ancient humans felt the same way," said David Anthony, a co-author of the study and Hartwick College archaeologist. [47] Some individuals are believed to have carried a mutation to the KITLG gene associated with blond hair, as several individuals with Steppe ancestry are later found to carry this mutation. Which travel companies promote harmful wildlife activities? That could explain both their surprising collapse and the rapid spread of Yamnaya DNA from Russia to Britain. Were theonlyPop Archaeology site combining scientific research with out-of-the-box perspectives. Second, together with archaeology it amounts to a rejection of Kossinnas claim that some kind of pure race exists in Europe, one that can be identified from its cultural artifacts. The Yamnaya were a group of livestock herders who lived north of the Black Sea and in the Caucasus mountains in modern day Russia and Ukraine. The Yamnaya culture is significant for its role in the rise of the Indo-European languages. First, a group of hunter-gatherers arrived in Europe about 37,000 years ago. A millennium later, when it was finished, the Neolithic population had been replaced by descendants of the Yamnayaperhaps because the latter carried plague. In the process any notion of European genetic purity has been swept away on a tide of powdered bone. (B) The most frequent Y haplogroups (or their combination) in European nations.The frequencies of Y haplogroups that do not differ by more than 1% are indicated by hatching. Dyeus PaterThe Original All-Father of the Gods . They did engage in occasional raids, but there is also evidence that there was significant trade and communication between different nomadic groups and farming communities. Those Neolithic farmers mostly had light skin and dark eyesthe opposite of many of the hunter-gatherers with whom they now lived side by side. The Iliad can provide new insights on the role of motherhood among the ancient Greek gods, and by extension, amongst ancient mortal Greek women themselves. If we've learned anything from the COVID-19 pandemic, it's that we cannot wait for a crisis to respond. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 2020; 201920051 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1920051117 Cite This Page : When present day European genetics was formed during the beginning of the Bronze Age 5,000 years ago it was a result of migrating Yamnaya pastoralists from the Caspian steppe encountering Stone . They subsisted on large mammals such as mammoths, horses, reindeer, and aurochsthe ancestors of modern cattle. Kossinna thought that the ethnicity of people in the pasttheir biological identity, in effectcould be deduced from the stuff they left behind. The person buried here under the floor of a home likely would have farmed small plots of domesticated wheat, and may have herded goats and sheep, while continuing to forage. It was populated largely by hunter-gatherers, living not very differently from how they had lived when they first arrived in Europe roughly 37,000 years ago. About 5,400 years ago, everything changed. The horsemanship the Yamnaya brought to Europe lives on in their native region. In Sweden, ancient rock carvings (enhanced with modern red paint) echo cultural shifts brought by migrantsstarting with hunter-gatherers who came from Africa in the Ice Age and followed retreating glaciers north. Within a thousand years the Neolithic revolution, as its called, spread north through Anatolia and into southeastern Europe. But nobody is suggesting that Vucedol was Indo-Europeanized directly via a Yamnaya movement, but that the Usatovo culture movements towards the Balkans ultimately descended . The research team, led by David Reich of Harvard Medical School, discovered that the DNA of the Yamnaya, 5,000-year-old steppe herders in western Russia, was a close match for 4,500-year-old . If the OT is correct and Japath is the father of these folks, perhaps we ought to study his sons and his sons to see if the family tree does indeed branch out that way. YAVORNITSKY NATIONAL HISTORICAL MUSEUM, DNIPROPETROVSK, UKRAINE, MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN HISTORY. 2018. It is also possible that they could have been raiders intending to become rich from plunder and gain glory in battle to establish their place in their society, similar to the Vikings. If a plague wiped out Europes Neolithic farmers, it left little trace. The latter hypothesis is known as the Kurgan Hypothesis which comes from the name for the type of grave used by the people of the region at the time. found that the typical phenotype among the Yamnaya population was brown eyes, brown hair, and intermediate skin colour. Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population . This may have been related to the nomadic lifestyle of the Yamnaya. Archaeologists have been able to take a closer look at one of the United Kingdoms most famous shipwrecks. In 1996 Pavel Dolukhanov suggested that the emergence of the Pit-Grave culture represents a social development of various local Bronze Age cultures,[citation needed] representing "an expression of social stratification and the emergence of chiefdom-type nomadic social structures", which in turn intensified inter-group contacts between essentially heterogeneous social groups. Some dwellings were furnished with carved sculptures that were half human, half fish. Technical advances in just the past few years have made it cheap and efficient to do so; a well-preserved bit of skeleton can now be sequenced for around $500. And in bringing innovative metal weapons and tools, they may have helped nudge Europe toward the Bronze Age. Later, when the connection with a cord was lost (when the corded wear had disappeared), the meaning generalised to: to decorate, or to complete, as in Dutch '(vol)tooien'. Yet ancient DNA, which provides direct information about the biology of ancient humans, has become a strong argument against Kossinnas theory. The earlier migration of farmers from Anatolia is beyond the scope of this article, but recent research suggests that the dawn of Bronze Age Europe was due to the expansion of the Yamnaya culture. Bower, B. 2000-1100 BCE : The Sea Peoples invade the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean from the north (probably from the Black Sea). Between 5000 and 4000 years ago, the Yamnaya and their descendants colonised swathes of Europe, leaving a genetic legacy that persists to this day. During the past decade it has become possible to sequence the entire genome of humans who lived tens of millennia ago. Alternatively, the fact that there are original PIE words for domestic barley and wheat suggests that Proto-Indo-European speakers, whoever they were, were already familiar with farming when they became a distinct linguistic group. The Yamnaya and other ancient Eurasian populations have helped scientists understand not just human history but also the history of human viruses. PIE culture was at least partly sedentary, raising crops like wheat barley and probably living in waddle and daub structures. This is found in western Europe, in Ukraine, southern Russia, Uzbekistan, Iran, and among the priestly caste on the Indian subcontinent. One major source of contention over the origins of the precursor to modern European cultures is over whether they involved the movement of actual people or merely the exchange of ideas. Can we bring a species back from the brink?, Video Story, Copyright 1996-2015 National Geographic Society, Copyright 2015-2023 National Geographic Partners, LLC. The Pontic-Caspian steppe is the strongest candidate for the Urheimat (original homeland) of the Proto-Indo-European language, and evidence from linguistics[61] and genetics[6][62] suggests that the Yamnaya culture may be the homeland of the core Indo-European languages, excluding the Anatolian languages. They introduced the Indo-European languages spoken across much of the continent today. It was not new 800 miles to the east, however. Unlike that flea-borne Black Death, this early variant had to be passed from person to person. the first having spread proto-Indo-European . Recent studies over the years have revealed that most central and northern Europeans, as well as some groups in central Asia, are descended from the Yamnaya. Live Science. Researchers have found that it preserves genetic information long after usable DNA has been baked out of the rest of a skeleton. WASHINGTON (AP) Archaeologists have found the earliest direct evidence for horseback riding - an innovation that would transform history - in 5,000 year old human skeletons in central Europe. Stacked to the ceiling on steel shelves, theyre now a rich resource for geneticists. Many societies involved in this network were probably decentralized tribes and chiefdoms. Klejn has also suggested that the autosomal evidence does not support a Yamnaya migration, arguing that Western Steppe Herder ancestry in both contemporary and Bronze Age samples is lowest around the Danube in Hungary, near the western limits of the Yamnaya culture, and highest in Northern Europe, which Klejn argues is the opposite of what would be expected if the geneticists' hypothesis is correct. The younger sons tended to be freelancers who would go off and fight/conquer in order to make a living. at least from 6500BC is indigenous to the region, and the first advanced human culture! (Xiaopo~commonswiki / CC BY-SA 3.0 ). Impressions from the reed mats and wood beams that formed the roof of his tomb are still clear in the dark, hard-packed earth. However there is also significant admixture of Neolithic farmer populations as well. [49][50] It has been hypothesized that an allele associated with lactase persistence (conferring lactose tolerance into adulthood) was brought to Europe from the steppe by Yamnaya-related migrations. This group included people similar to that of Corded Ware, Srubnaya, Petrovka, and Sintashta. It has even been suggested that European women may have found Yamnaya men more desirable for marriage because of their prowess as warriors and their superior technology. From my archive, I wrote this in 2018. Society for Science and the Public News. On what are now the steppes of southern Russia and eastern Ukraine, a group of nomads called the Yamnaya, some of the first people in the world to ride horses, had mastered the wheel and were building wagons and following herds of cattle across the grasslands. 2015. The Boncuklu petrous bones paid off: DNA extracted from them was a match for farmers who lived and died centuries later and hundreds of miles to the northwest. . DNA extracted from the skulls of people buried here has helped researchers trace the spread of early farmers into Europe.

, The 'extreme cruelty' around the global trade in frog legs, What does cancer smell like? They particularly latched onto two studies from 2015 which claimed to show, through ancient DNA analysis, evidence that predatory bands of young men from the Yamnaya culture of the Eurasian. The first modern Europeans lived as hunters and gatherers in small, nomadic bands. He argues that the early Yamnaya horizon spread quickly across the PonticCaspian steppes between c.3400 and 3200BC:[20], The spread of the Yamnaya horizon was the material expression of the spread of late Proto-Indo-European across the PonticCaspian steppes. Volker Heyd, an archaeologist at the University of Helsinki, Finland, estimates there were as many as seven million people in Europe in 3000 B.C.

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