The alternative hypothesis that positive selection occurs on the foreground branches (>1) is compared with the null hypothesis, where =1 is fixed, using an LRT62. Genome. The mappings between giraffeokapi nucleotide difference and the reference assembly allowed us to predict amino-acid difference (in the case of nonsynonymous protein-coding differences) as follows. Cell. Lankester, R. On certain points in the structure of the cervical vertebrae of the okapi and the giraffe. 17, 129132 (2009). Unlike horns, antlers do grow out of bony structures (pedicle) found on the side of the frontal bones. When growth is complete the horn nucleus ossifies and fuses with the frontal bones of the skull. Boshnjaku, V. et al. Gene 407, 159168 (2008). Physiol. Only in species with two horns, the second one rests on the frontal bones. The blood pressure of giraffe is 2.5 higher than man, the left ventricle of the heart is enlarged and the blood vessel walls of the lower extremities are greatly thickened1,31. We thank Carly Driebelbis and Michael Potter for constructing Giraffe Genome website (https://giraffegenome.science.psu.edu). and M.A. The divergence of giraffe and okapi, based on the relative rates of synonymous substitutions, from a common ancestor is estimated to be 11.5 mya (Fig. volume7, Articlenumber:11519 (2016) The giraffe and okapi sequence data were also used to generate a draft genome assembly with a total length of 2.9 and 3.3Gb for giraffe and okapi, respectively (Supplementary Table 2). These may take various forms such as anatomical structures, behaviors and biochemical pathways. 26. Mitochondrial metabolism and volatile fatty acids transport genes are also evolutionarily diverged in giraffe and may be related to its unusual diet that includes toxic plants. Antlers only exist in males of the Cervidae family, except for the caribou or reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), in which both males and most of females have antlers. Life Sci. Anisimova, M. & Yang, Z. Protoc. Constitutive phosphorylation of MDC1 physically links the MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 complex to damaged chromatin. Hassanin, A. et al. Mol. Nat. Google Scholar. The purpose of this PowerPoint is to summarize the important information and concepts about the fossil record including: A. The different types of fossils and how to identify them B. The Whole Genome Shotgun project of G. camelopardalis tippelskirchi (MA1) has been deposited at DDBJ/ENA/GenBank under the accession LVKQ00000000 and the version described in this paper is version LVCL01000000. C. vestigial structures. The loss of a useful organ does not explain its origin. was supported by the Tanzania Commission of Science and Technology, COSTECH, Tanzania. At an older age, this protuberance is bigger, since calcium is deposited over time. Structures are similar in function but not in structure. Tailbone. Genes Dev. Over time, these traits and behaviors become what are. 252, 98108 (2008). Aluwong, T., Kobo, P. T. & Abdullahi, A. Lukas, C. et al. performed the unique substitution analysis. Ostrich wings, human tailbone and appendix, and whale legs are all examples of vestigial structures 400 A population of giraffes lives in a forest with trees of varying heights. Johannsson, E. et al. Vestigial structures are homologous to fully functioning structures inherited by related lineages. Zool. Nature 421, 961966 (2003). For humans, horns and antlers shouldnt have significance. retulata) giraffe used genomic DNA that we isolated from primary fibroblast cell cultures obtained from Dr Oliver Ryder at the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research. Correspondence to Mdc1 couples DNA double-strand break recognition by Nbs1 with its H2AX-dependent chromatin retention. 9, 62296232 (2010). Fossils & Vestigial Structures - Science Today this post is going more in-depth about Evolution and the evidence shown behind it, this is another given task which we had to work on independently. Bovine HapMap, C. et al. Interestingly, Badlangana et al.22 speculated that an inhibitor of FGF signalling might be responsible for modulating the size of giraffe cervical vertebrae based on the discovery that chemical inhibition of FGF signalling increased somite size in the chick embryo24. Vestigial StructureA vestigial structure is a structure that appears to no longer have a use in the body. As maximum likelihood methods designed to detect episodes of positive selection are sensitive to taxa sample size63, we re-analysed the initial PSG candidates list by including the orthologues of all mammals for which high-quality sequence data were available (1045 species). Scaffolds were assembled using SOAPdenovo2 (v2.04)57, setting k-mer size to 91 for the giraffe data set and 81 for the okapi data set, and enabling repeat resolution (-R parameter). The origin of giraffes iconic long neck and legs, which combine to elevate its stature to the tallest terrestrial animal, has intrigued mankind throughout recorded history and became a focal point of conflicting evolutionary theories proposed by Lamarck and Darwin. Strictly horns are two bony structures that emerge from the frontal bones of the skull, theyare permanent (never fall off) and unbranched. conceived the project and co-lead the project. Structure B is Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Translational Research newsletter top stories in biotechnology, drug discovery and pharma. Furthermore, these functions of the 'clavicular complex' also protect blood vessels of the 'armpit' and the . The results of the PSG analysis are given for the 70 MSA genes in Supplementary Table 4. Bioinformatics 25, 17541760 (2009). 3, 861866 (2001). Biology 1 Principles of Evolution Principles of Evolution Chapter Test A Answer Key Multiple Choice 1. b 2. c 3. a 4. b 5. a 6. c 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. c 11. b 12. a 13. d 14. c 15. a Short Answer 16. homologous structures 17. To determine whether substitutions unique to Masai giraffe were conserved in other giraffe subspecies, we performed targeted sequencing of several genes in Rothschild (G.c. Molecular cytogenetic insights to the phylogenetic affinities of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). 24, 15861591 (2007). Nature 329, 5960 (1987). You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. As we saw in a previous post, humans and other primates share a common ancestor and natural selection has been acting differently in each of us. Do you have any questions about evolution? Gigascience 1, 18 (2012). Growth begins in spring (April or May in the Northern Hemisphere), due to hormonal changes and the gradual increase in light hours. To pump blood vertically 2m from the heart to the brain giraffe has evolved a turbocharged heart and twofold greater blood pressure than other mammals1,5. This is because they also use them during fights. 1908, 320334 (1908). Comp. Chem. Joberty, G. et al. Yang, Z. PAML 4: phylogenetic analysis by maximum likelihood. J. Genet. & Pourquie, O. fgf8 mRNA decay establishes a gradient that couples axial elongation to patterning in the vertebrate embryo. PubMedGoogle Scholar. J. Zool. These organisms are said to have undergone through the divergent evolution. Mice lacking the folic acid-binding protein Folbp1 are defective in early embryonic development. C) Darwin's theory emphasized that populations vary and change . CAS All bovids (bulls, goats, sheep, antelopes) have horns, including the females in many species. Third eyelid (Plica semilunaris) Now we will try and understand the organs and their functions (if they had any) that they used to carry out before they became dormant! Susaeta. performed the gene annotations. A simple, fast, and accurate algorithm to estimate large phylogenies by maximum likelihood. Biol. Comment with videos you want me. All rights reserved 2). Giraffe genome sequence reveals clues to its unique morphology and physiology. vestigial structures in giraffes. Wisdom Teeth. The initial sequence reads from giraffe and okapi were aligned to the 19,030 cattle (Bos taurus) references transcripts17 to predict homologous genes (Supplementary Table 1), which yielded 17,210 giraffe and 17,048 okapi genes. In fact, they explain vestigial eyes in the same way. Bacteria, algae, sharks, crocodiles, etc., have remained very similar over millions of years. Several of these genes encode well-known regulators of skeletal, cardiovascular and neural development, and are likely to contribute to giraffes unique characteristics. To verify gene predictions and gene structure in cases where the original gene annotations for giraffe and okapi were incomplete or ambiguous, the draft assembly was aligned to dog or human gene sequences. SURVEY . They can also cause disease and be a maintenance burden. The sheep genome illuminates biology of the rumen and lipid metabolism. 45) are diverged in giraffe and/or okapi (Fig. Before aligning sequences, tblastn was run on each sequence against corresponding cow protein RefSeq sequence (downloaded from Ensembl). Birney, E., Clamp, M. & Durbin, R. GeneWise and Genomewise. peterbilt 379 hood roller bracket. Vestigial Structure: deff: A rudimentary or degenerate, usually non functioning, structure that is the remnant of an organ or part that was fully developed or functioning in a preceding generation or an earlier stage of development. Adzhubei, I., Jordan, D. M. & Sunyaev, S. R. Predicting functional effect of human missense mutations using PolyPhen-2. performed the whole-genome sequencing. However, what the evolutionist needs to explain is how the eyes originated in the first place. Photos: A-E, Steve Demarais, F, Dave Hewitt. Cytoscape: a software environment for integrated models of biomolecular interaction networks. 31, 334341 (2003). Vestigial Structures Explained Badlangana, N. L., Bhagwandin, A., Fuxe, K. & Manger, P. R. Observations on the giraffe central nervous system related to the corticospinal tract, motor cortex and spinal cord: what difference does a long neck make? wrote the paper. J. Biol. Rhinos have small eyes and fairly short but prominent and erect ears. 24, 12191228 (2007). 14, 219 (2014). Some researchers have proposed that this derived feature of the human vocal tract holds important clues to the evolution of speech ( MacLarnon and Hewitt 1999 ; Fitch 2000 ; Fitch and . Some branches stop growing (species become extinct), while others continue to diversify. Analogous features 60), using likelihood ratio tests (LRTs). Both hind and forefeet are mesaxonic with 3 digits each; each digit with a small hoof. DNA Repair (Amst) 3, 953957 (2004). Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like 1) Which of the following statements best describes Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection? Mol. In contrast, species with larger antlers do not have these developed tusks. Comp. FOLR1 mutations are embryonically lethal in mice28 and produce hypomyelination and neurological defects in humans29. In addition, the horn is placed above the nasal bones, not in frontal position as in the case of antlers and true horns. Biol. and B.W. Examples of vestigial structures include the tailbone of humans (a vestigial tail), the hind leg bones of whales, and the underdeveloped legs found in some snakes (see picture at right). Presence of 7 vertebrae in neck of most mammals (including giraffes). Giraffe ossicones are used by males during their confrontations. Often, these vestigial structures were organs that performed some important functions in the organism at one point in the past. This has substantial evidence as the okapi is the only close relative to the giraffe and their skulls, as shown in picture D, are very identical. The giraffe cardiovascular system is adapted to regulate blood pressure over a height of 6m and to maintain cardiovascular homeostasis associated with rapid changes in the relative position of the brain to the heart. Vestigial features of humans and other organisms are well known and have long been used as key evidence for evolution. Li, H. & Durbin, R. Fast and accurate short read alignment with Burrows-Wheeler transform. 1. 30 seconds . Genet. Nucleic Acids Res. These data were combined with global analysis of positive selection analysis to identify genes that exhibit MSA in giraffe. Thomas, P. D. et al. Evolution is a process that started acting when life first appeared and continues to act in all organisms, including us, although we have changed the way in which natural selection works (medical and technological breakthroughs, etc.). To test for signatures of positive selection acting on giraffe lineage for each of the genes, we compared the likelihood scores of selection models implemented in CODEML in the PAML package, version 4.7 (ref. Giraffe genome sequence reveals clues to its unique morphology and physiology. Our tailbone, also known as a coccyx, is a series of small vertebrae at the bottom of the . It is no longer needed to break down complex cellulose in our diet like for our common ancestors. Here are six of the more surprising examples of human vestigiality. Evol. Evolution can be observed in beings with a very high reproduction rate, for example bacteria, since mutations accumulate more quickly. A. Homologous structure B. Analogous structure C. vestigial structure 2 See answers Advertisement wonderfulcreatu What are they used for? Related Biology Terms & Chen, J. MDC1 is coupled to activated CHK2 in mammalian DNA damage response pathways. Brondum, E. et al. Multiple congenital malformations of Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome are recapitulated in Fgfrl1 null mice. These two phosphorylation sites are among multiple sites that regulate the interaction of MDC1 and NBS1 essential for the recruitment of the MRN complex to double-strand breaks. J. Linn. However, we found that two-thirds of the genes most diverged in giraffe have specific roles in regulating skeletal, cardiovascular and/or neural development, or physiology (Fig. As we know, mainly antlers and horns are used by males during the breeding season to compete for females, in fights and exhibitions. Homologous . The science began in the classical era, continuing in the early modern period with work by Pierre Belon who noted the similarities of the skeletons of birds and humans. By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. Lond. We use our language to be more evolved as a synonym for more complex, and we consider ourselves one species that has reached a high level of understanding of their environment, so many people believe that evolution has come to an end with us. 1999. Mitchell, G. & Skinner, J. D. An allometric analysis of the giraffe cardiovascular system. 1. D.R.C. D. the species have very different ancestors. That is, evolution has to be viewed as a tree, and not as a straight line, where each branch would be a species . performed targeted sequencing. Article C. the species are related by a common ancestry. Biochem. (34) $4.95. The sequence alignment/map format and SAMtools. Chromosome Res. 4.9. Camb. Human reference is shown, which is identical to cattle and okapi in this segment. Cell Biol. Slider with three articles shown per slide. If you thought that this is similar to artificial selection that we do with the different breeds of dogs, cows who give more milk, trees bearing more fruit and larger, congratulations, you think like Darwin as it was inspired by some of these facts. 76, 217224 (1983). Outside the scientific field, the word theory is used to refer to events that have not been tested or assumptions. Mol. 22, 11071118 (2005). Another so-called vestigial organ finds a function. Biol. J. Physiol. Cluster analysis was performed on the set of 70 giraffe MSA genes based on GO Biological Process using Cytoscape 3.0 (ref. Darwin predicted them and they continue to be discovered in species all over the world. Folate receptor alpha defect causes cerebral folate transport deficiency: a treatable neurodegenerative disorder associated with disturbed myelin metabolism. coordinated the project, performed enhanced gene annotations, performed the dN/dS screen and pathway enrichment analyses, and identified and collated the set of MSA genes. Here we sequenced the genomes of the Masai giraffe and okapi, and through comparative analysis with other eutherians mammals, 70 genes were identified that exhibit multiple signs of adaptation (MSA) in giraffe. Regul. Traits that have arisen as a result of common evolutionary descent are said to be . Piedrahita, J. Massa, Renato. Genes regulating fundamental aspects of development and physiology are highly conserved among major mammalian taxa48,49. Adaptive divergence was evaluated by pairwise analysis of 13,581 giraffe, okapi and cattle genes that showed at least 90% coverage by comparing nonsynonymous (dN) changes in protein coding sequences as well as normalized to synonymous (dS) changes (dN/dS, ). The complementary DNAs from both giraffe and okapi liver tissue were truncated in exon 5, indicating the use of a cryptic 5-splice site resulting in a 264-amino acid internal deletion not seen in any other vertebrate. J. Exp. Giraffes elevated stature enables it to feed on acacia leaves and seedpods that are highly nutritious but also contain toxic alkaloids. the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Anat. Giant tortoise genomes provide insights into longevity and age-related disease, Comparative genomics provides new insights into the remarkable adaptations of the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), Three chromosome-level duck genome assemblies provide insights into genomic variation during domestication, A catalog of single nucleotide changes distinguishing modern humans from archaic hominins, A pig BodyMap transcriptome reveals diverse tissue physiologies and evolutionary dynamics of transcription, Whole genome sequencing of canids reveals genomic regions under selection and variants influencing morphology, Rib cage anatomy in Homo erectus suggests a recent evolutionary origin of modern human body shape, The bowfin genome illuminates the developmental evolution of ray-finned fishes, Recurrent erosion of COA1/MITRAC15 exemplifies conditional gene dispensability in oxidative phosphorylation, https://github.com/Victorian-Bioinformatics-Consortium/nesoni, http://www.giraffeconservation.org/programmes/giraffe-conservation-status-2/, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/, The cardiovascular challenges in giraffes, Human Nature, Metaphysics and Evolutionary Theory, Population analysis of retrotransposons in giraffe genomes supports RTE decline and widespread LINE1 activity in Giraffidae, CSN: unsupervised approach for inferring biological networks based on the genome alone, Genome of the Komodo dragon reveals adaptations in the cardiovascular and chemosensory systems of monitor lizards, Sign up for Nature Briefing: Translational Research. The pyramidalis muscles vary in size and in numberwith some people having two, one, or none. For these 70 genes, the amino acid substitutions unique to giraffe were confirmed in 2 individual Masai giraffes (MA1 and NZOO) and confirmed in an individual Rothschild and Reticulated giraffe including FGFRL1, FOLR1, RCAN3, AXIN2 and HOXD9. 1. Bulls, deer, rhinos all of them have structures on their heads that we call horns, but they are not all the same. There are countless examples of. The unique giraffe substitutions occur in the FGF-binding domain region flanking the N-terminal cysteine (asterisk) of the Ig-III loop (lower panel). Which type of reproductive barrier separates a pair of jellyfish species that could interbreed except that one lives near the surface of the ocean and the other lives in the 1. Among the 70 genes exhibiting MSA in giraffe, FGFRL1 is the strongest candidate for directly having an impact on the unique growth of the axial and appendicular skeleton and the cardiovascular system. EMBO J. BORG1 and RCAN3, which are highly expressed in the heart and purported to have important functions related to cell shape and cardiac muscle contraction, respectively, are also significantly diverged in giraffe32,33. Integr. Post author: Post published: 22/06/2022; Post category: luxury picnic houston; Post comments: . Unexpectedly, substantial evolutionary changes have occurred in giraffe and okapi in double-strand break repair and centrosome functions. Am. Q. answer choices . provided the Nashville Zoo (NZOO) giraffe tissues samples. These are structures that have been reduced to the point that they are virtually useless. For example, a chimpanzee's arm and a human's arm are homologous structures. List Of Vestigial Parts/organs. However, in general, females have thinner horns while in males they are wider and can withstand more force. Although usually not capable of lactation, male nipples often still respond to sexual . In addition, these proteins are essential for lactate transport and metabolism that is particularly important for cardiovascular functions36. Thus, they provide strong evidence of common ancestry and can help us trace the evolutionary origin of the species with the vestigial structures. rothschildi) and Reticulated (G.c. Internet Explorer). The human tail, which is reduced to the tailbone during development, is one example. B.C.M. The authors declare no competing financial interests. Vestigial structures are usually harmless though they may bring some additional weight. As generation after generation survived and reproduced, this new form flourished. 284, 3393933948 (2009). J. Physiol. Biol. Curr. The human vermiform appendix is a vestigial structure; it no longer retains its original function. Ed. For instance, the tiny vestigial leg bones found in some snakes reflect that snakes had a four-legged ancestor. Mate-paired libraries were also prepared from the MA1 Masai giraffe and okapi, and sequenced to increase coverage and to span repetitive sequence elements. and R.B. CAS They have a necessity, they change their bodies to success. In this article we have tried to bring to uninitiated peoplesome basics, where we can delve into the future. Nature Communications (Nat Commun) Through questions you may have ever asked yourself, in this article we will have a first look at the basic principles of evolution and debunk misconceptions about it. revised the paper. The radius/ulna and tibia/fibula are only slightly moveable, but they are well-developed and separate. Left ventricular morphology of the giraffe heart examined by stereological methods. This mutation will cause a change in the proteins that are required for the formation of the structure. Vestigial structures are fascinating. Bedoya-Reina, O. C. et al. C.A.P. 2, 150393 (2015). The sequences that aligned to the reference genome as described above were sorted by the start position of their alignment to the reference genome. Commun. Do they have economic value? Nipples start to form before SRY activates, so all humans end up with nipples, regardless of their sex. The human appendix helps to maintain the health of the gut, and arose fairly late in the evolutionary history of mammals. Zhang, J., Nielsen, R. & Yang, Z. Vestigial . Lou, Z., Minter-Dykhouse, K., Wu, X. 44, 946949 (2012). 2, 283294 (2009). In females, the horn would help to protect the young, whereas in males to face their rivals. Mediator of DNA damage checkpoint 1 (MDC1) regulates mitotic progression. Ear muscles and the tail bones are examples of vestigial structures in our own species. Vestigial Salmon Adipose Fin Actually Useful. Males also have a protrusion in front of the ossicones more sharp than females. Genome Res. Ed. Such structures can provide insight into former evolutionary pressures and behaviors and indicate how adaptive regimes have shifted across a phylogenetic lineage through time. Genet. Even today, and even among the young ones, there is the idea that we are something different between living beings and we are in a special podium in the collective imagination. ADS Genet. The mediator of DNA-damage check point 1 (MDC1) binds phosphorylated H2AX, which mark DNA double-strand break, and serves as scaffold to recruit the MRN DNA repair complex composed of NBS1, MRE11 and RAD50 (upper panel). Cell Biol. Horns, often sharp, are also used as a defense against predator attacks. (a) Giraffe FGFRL1 contains seven amino acid substitutions that are unique at fixed sites in other mammals and/or are predicted by Polphen2 analysis to alter function (upper panel). The growth of the antlers has several phases: A, B, C: 1, 15 y 30 days of growht. B.C.M. Giraffe and okapi genes are equally distantly related to cattle, suggesting that giraffes unique characteristics are not due to an overall faster rate of evolution. It is possible that they also have some function in thermoregulation. As you may assume at this point, no, giraffes do not have true horns, but they also have two structures in the head, males, females and newborns. Soc. 1). that they make so difficult to redesign the classical Dariwns tree, El rinoceronte negro de frica se ha extinguido, Safaris africanos y el negocio de los trofeos en Espaa, Darwins Tree of Life is a Tangled Bramble Bush, Algunas reflexiones sobre la clasificacin de los seres vivos, Las ideas en la ciencia: Teora, hiptesis y leyes, Frequently asked questions about evolution, Follow All you need is Biology on WordPress.com, Clutton-Brock, Juliet et al. Pennsylvania State Univ. Giraffe and okapi genes are highly similar overall with 19.4% of proteins being identical (Fig. Over time, they may be phased out through selective pressure. Strictly horns are two bony structures that emerge from the frontal bones of the skull, they are permanent (never fall off) and unbranched. Ensembl reference transcripts with the highest degree of confidence and information (TSL:1, GENECODE basic, APPRIS P1) were used. Vestigial definition, of, relating to, or of the nature of a vestige: a vestigial tail. Vestigial legs are a clue that snakes descended from lizards. The definition of a vestigial structure is a body part that is reduced or impaired from its ancestral condition, and no longer has a function within a species. 23, 228232 (1999). vestigial structures in giraffes. Goetz, R. H. & Keen, E. N. Some aspects of the cardiovascular system in the giraffe. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate. Vestigial structures are actually the "footprints" of embryology and the "footprints" of the efficiently engineered designs of our common Designer, God. Article A. Mol. All that remains are vestigial structures of the lateral ventricles, and only in rare pathological cases do humans have small air sacs (Stell and Maran 1975). The picture below on the left shows the central ankle bones (called astragali) of three artiodactyls, and you can see they have double pulley joints and hooked processes pointing up toward the leg-bones. They are permanent, not branched and they are always covered with hair and skin. 297, R1058R1065 (2009). This aggregate analysis led to the identification of 70 MSA genes. Integr. The FOLR1 protein forms a globular structure maintained by overlapping disulfide bridges between 16 cysteine residues (red) and tethered to the plasma membrane at S233 by a Gpi anchor. Qiu, Q. et al. The observed distinctive changes in these genes may provide clues as to the evolutionary origins of giraffes high blood pressure, increased cardiac output and modified vasculature. Vestigial metapodials in the Okapi and Giraffe. They are made up ofa bony nucleus and an outer coating of keratin (the same protein from our hair and nails). rothschildi) and Reticulated (G.c. Two giraffe subspecies are nearly extinct and overall the number of giraffes have declined by 40% since 2000, due to poaching and habitat loss16. sweet things to write in a baby book. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles R.C. Physiol. Branch-site models were used to identify positive selection acting on giraffe versus cattle, okapi and gerenuk. The giraffe and okapi MDC1 gene exhibits a 264 amino acid deletion that removes part of the SDT region that harbours two critical CK2 phosphorylation sites (lower panel). Regul. A) Darwin's theory was the first to describe the ideas of special creation. The extracellular structure of FGFRL1 (left) is the same as a prototypical FGF receptor (FGFR, right) but lacks the cytoplasmic C-terminal tyrosine kinase domains seen in FGFR and instead contains a zinc-binding domain. PhyML uses a likelihood-based tree-searching algorithm to find an optimal phylogeny.

James Martin Treacle Bread, What Is A Good Citescore For A Journal, Naruto Neglected By Family Runs Away Fanfiction, Southern Tier Pumking Nutrition Facts, Articles V